United Nation Peacekeeping Essay Example for Free

United Nation Peacekeeping Essay Certain degree of bias indications has to be inevitable among any group of peacekeepers despite of their altruistic intentions. Under the principles of neutrality and impartiality, even United Nation peacekeepers are entitled to experience such biased inclinations during the course of their campaigns. In order to test this hypothesis, the study reviews the acts and campaigns of the Irish peacekeepers serving with UNIFL in Lebanon from 1980 to 2002 for potential indications of biased decisions, activities and empathy, specifically towards the local Lebanese or the Jewish settlers. ii. Problem and its Background By nature, UN Peacekeeping Organization (1948) has been helping in the resolution of existing conflicts among warring countries and/or international feuds. According to Sperling and Kirchner (1997), the UN has been able to alter its image from that of an inactive to an active organization, and the considered major etiology is the agreement among the fiver permanent members of the Security Council in 1987, particularly in using the organization as an intervener of international affairs, conflict and disarmament (p. 62). One of the most significant UN peacekeeping campaigns is the United Nations Interim Force in Lebanon (UNIFIL) that centers on the 1980 conflicts between Israel and Lebanon. UN Peacekeeping ambassadors have been associated to the UNFIL mandating the withdrawal of Israeli forces from Lebanese territory to restore international peace and security in the area. Furthermore, under the UN Security Council Resolution 425, the peacekeeping campaign and UNFIL have provided extensive tasks over Lebanese territory, such as assisting the government of Lebanon in ensuring the return of its effective authority in southern Lebanon, humanitarian assistance, supplies provision (e. g. medical, food, etc. ), and others (Fleitz 2002 54). Despite of the altruistic motives of the peacekeeping organization, UNFIL has encountered tremendous rejection and feud against Israelite, which eventually worsened the UN-Israel relations. According to Pitta and McCouaig (1994), the Irish peace UN ambassadors together with other members of UNIFIL have been associated 1982 Lebanon Wars between Israeli and Palestinian terrorists (Hizballah) within Lebanon (p. 4-5). Hence, instead of becoming peace ambassadors, UNIFIL members are caught in the middle of Israeli-Palestinian feud, while their Israeli-Lebanese goal of withdrawal has become entirely complex, which eventually resulted in the damage of UN relationships among Lebanese and Israeli groups. iii. Aims of the Study The primary task of the discussion is to obtain indications illustrating bias or non-partial indicators among Irish peacekeeping forces and UNIFIL members during the campaigns on Israel-Lebanon settlements. The study examines the sides of four parties involved, (1) UNIFIL and Peacekeeping Groups, (2) Lebanese Officials and their territory, (3) Israeli soldiers and their abusive settlement within Lebanese territory, and (4) the Palestinian terrorist group. The study seeks (1) to discern biased actions or perceptions that resulted in peacekeepers (Irish; UNIFIL) empathizing with either the local Lebanese or with Jewish settlers, and (2) to determine the implications of these biased activities towards UN’s relationships among Lebanon and Israel. II. Discussion i. Overview of Peacekeeping Traces of Biased Rule (1940s to 1980s) The primary characteristic of the U. N peacekeeping operations is its role in the resolution or management of conflicts and not entirely to provide aid to any parties concerned. From the historical point of view, peacekeeping operations in the Middle East have started way backed 1948 Arab-Israeli Wars under the United Nations Truce Supervision (UNTSO). The primary task of UNTSO is to supervise both military condition and the Palestinian truce (Pitta and Mccouaig 1994 4). As supported by Kellerman, Siehr and Einhorn (1998), UNTSO’s indefinite mandate is limited to observing, reporting and investigating cease-fire violations and other border incidents in the course of supervising the implementation of the General Armistice Agreements between Israel and Arab neighbors (p. 368). At that point, the United Nations General Assembly has proposed its initial peacekeeping resolution in an effort of negotiating the disputed Jerusalem from the two parties involved – Israel and Palestinians. The offer involves the partitioning of the territory into separate Arab and Jewish states with the city of Jerusalem under the International mandate. However, the offer has been declined since the most significant sacred city, Jerusalem, cannot be placed into any others’ property aside from the Jewish nation (Kellerman, Siehr and Einhorn 1998 p. 368). According to Pitta and Mccouaig (1994), the United Kingdom possesses 1. 5 million Palestinian Arabs under the League of Nations mandate and 500,000 Jews (p. 4). After the negation of UN proposal on 14th of May 1948, the United Kingdom relinquished its mandate over Palestine, while the Israel has been proclaimed. Due to the biased support of the international nationalities among Israel, the next day (May 15) the Palestinian Arabs, together with other Arab states (Egypt, Jordan, Lebanon and Syria), attacked the United Kingdom republic. According to Hearn (1999), if the peacekeeping forces fail to uphold the requirement of impartiality, the credibility of their campaign shall be compromised, which consequently opens them to attacks (p. 10). In order to resolve the conflict, the UN Security Council has called for a cease-fire mandate under the Resolution 50 on MAY 29, 1948. According to Pitta and Mccouaig (1994), the UNTSO observers have become the primary observers of the truce of 1948 (p. 4). UNTSO has become the primary and the longest existing peacekeeping organization securing and monitoring the relationship between Israel and Palestinian groups. UNTSO observers have been attached to UNFIL groups in an effort of securing and monitoring the implementation of the 1948 Truce and cease fire mandate. However, according to Stephan (2004), UNTSO observers and other peacekeeping groups (e. g. UNIFIL, UN Security Council, etc. ) have been accused on implementing biased treatment among both Jews and Palestinian settlers. In response to the Lebanon-Israel conflict, Fleitz (2002) has reported that Israel groups are complaining against anti-Jews activities among UNTSO, UNIFIL and UN Department of Peacekeeping (p. 54). Meanwhile, according to Hahn (2004), Palestinians are complaining against the international favor (e. g. American support towards the Israelites, UNTSO’s rejection of Syrian complaints against Israel’s bridge and trenches fortifications that are considered violation against the armistice, etc. ). Considering these scenarios, accusations of being biased are being directed to almost every party involved in the Israel-Palestinian feud. ii. The 1982 Conflicts among UNIFIL and Disputants According to Fleitz (2002), UNIFIL is the most notorious example of the consequences when a traditional peacekeeping force is only partially accepted by warring parties (p. 54). Similar to the history of UNTSO, UNIFIL has been accused of having biased activities with the Lebanese party. The primary task of UNIFIL is to monitor the conditions of Israel settlement in Lebanon and facilitate its withdrawal. However, the disputants refuse to fully cooperate with the UNIFIL representatives due to the vast issues of biased activities (e. g. Israel party is accusing UNIFIL of being an anti-Israelite group, etc). According to Muller (1997), Israel has objected to the UN’s bias in Lebanon and elsewhere branding the UNIFIL organization as an instrument for their anti-Israel schemes (p. 132). Due to the past issues of Israel with Syria, Iran and other Arab Nations, the provision of support system has become very sensitive and critical to the peacekeeping strategies of UNIFIL. Israel has accused UNIFIL of supporting the Lebanese to regain the Palestinian and the rest of the Arab’s favor. Although, according to Fleitz (2002) and Nachmias (1999), Israel perceives UNIFIL as a U. N instrument in helping the Lebanese-Syrian groups against their nation. According to Gat (2003), Israel has falsely interpreted the reasons of Israeli troops’ withdrawal from Lebanon, and considered this as an aid for the Arab groups to reconstruct their settlement in the area (p. 104) Conflict between Israel and UNIFIL’s mission of Israel’s withdrawal has threatened the U. N-Israeli relations. Due to the incident, UNIFIL-Arab conflict has increased causing the decline of UNIFIL populations and death of most Irish peacekeepers. According to Said and Hitchens (2001), the Israeli Iron Fist operations against terrorist suspicion in the area of Lebanon have prevented them from leaving (p. 131). Nachmias (1999) states that UNIFIL failed in its three mandatory missions: (1) it did not induce peace, (2) it did not stop the daily carnage of Israeli soldiers and Lebanese civilians, and (3) it failed to achieve the withdrawal of all foreign forces from Lebanon. Instead of fulfilling their peacekeeping tasks, UNIFIL is caught in the middle of the Israeli-Palestinian feud within the Lebanese settlement. In 1985, the Israeli settlers in Lebanon filed their request of using Southern Lebanon as their settlement in the area. According to Fleitz (2002), the settling of Israelites within the security zones of South Lebanon has caused severe casualties on the part of UNIFIL members, specifically 83 fatalities from attacks when Israel launched a major invasion of Lebanon through UNIFIL positions (p. 55). Due to these consequent events, UNIFIL has failed its very mission of settling the feud between Israel and Lebanon. The South Lebanon Army has defied the U. N resolutions not to occupy the security zone between Israeli border and UNIFIL forces. The tensions between Israel and Lebanese civilians have grown to be very sensitive. UNIFIL, being opposed to the settlement of Israelites in the area of Southern Lebanon, has been incorporated with the targets of Israeli troops. However, during the patrol of Israelites within the streets of Lebanon, incidence of preventive gunfire against Irish peacekeeping forces has been reported, which eventually caused wide protest against Israel troops (Said and Hitchens 2001 133). Due to the aggressive military activities of Israel against Lebanese civilians (e. g. 1984 killing of 150 children in a bombed-out school at Bekaa Valley, 1985 killing of 20 people in Tripoli refugee camp, etc. ), UNIFIL has to support the local Lebanese civilians, especially the wounded.

Challenges Walmart Faces Expanding Their Territory To China Management Essay

Challenges Walmart Faces Expanding Their Territory To China Management Essay Business operations across national borders are becoming the trend in the current era. And this trend continuously grows because of globalisation and multinational operation. In response to this globalisation issue, multinational corporations like Wal-Mart tend operate in other countries to have excellent advantage. According to Amponsah (2001) globalisation and the eagerness of a certain business organisation to operate across borders involves two dimension i.e. change in economic operations of various countries, and change in the participants of global economic operations. Several people believe that the globalisation of economic activities of every country would hasten the fight against poverty (Macarov 2003, p. 103). But like other companies that are operating in local scale, Wal-Mart a multinational company also faces different opportunities and challenges in the foreign market. With this, this paper will be discussing the opportunities and challenges that Wal-Mart faces in venturing the Chinese territory. Opportunities A business venturing to a foreign market creates good opportunities. As for Wal-Mart venturing in China, a new foreign market like China might provide opportunities for new growth. Aside from this, Wal-Mart uses global expansion to lower costs of goods, accelerate speed to market, improve quality of products and of course to cut their overhead costs considering that China is a low cost country whereas the labour is cheap compared to other countries in the West (Walmartstores, 2010). Most MNCs are establishing subsidiaries in other nations to reduce costs, mainly through the use of cheap foreign labour in developing countries. Like other MNCs, Wal-Mart can hold down costs by shifting some or all of its production facilities abroad. Although Wal-Mart are not claiming that they using the opportunity of global expansion to escape the protectionist policies of an importing country, it is remains the motives of most MNCs. Through direct foreign investment, a corporation like Wal-Mart can b ypass high tariffs that prevent its goods from being competitively priced. For example, when the European Common Market (the predecessor of the European Union) placed tariffs on goods produced by outsiders, U.S. corporations responded by setting up European subsidiaries (Multinational Corporation 1998). Venturing in China is also a good opportunity for Wal-Mart to prevent competition. The most certain method of preventing actual or potential competition from foreign businesses is to acquire those businesses ((Multinational Corporation 1998). Despite of the opportunistic feat of global expansion, Wal-Mart holds that they create employment, create wealth, and improve technology in countries that are in dire need of such development. Critics, however, point to their inordinate political influence, their exploitation of developing nations, and the loss of jobs that result in the corporations home countries. Challenges Cultures Maddox (1993) claims that going global require transformation of managerial skills learned at the home office to enable the managers to function cross-culturally. Business firms must focus on selecting and training managers to become more attuned to different cultures, particularly in the culture of their country of assignment. In the case of Wal-Mart, their Board of Directors should have identified economy, politics, religion, value systems, and frame of reference of the Chinese consumers regarding the products and services that they offer as the primary areas that posed distinct challenges in their expansion to China. Thus, the same aspects merit the attention of the leaders of Wal-Mart who will be assigned at the companys branch in China. The Chinese culture and lifestyle are different from those of the Wal-Marts home country i.e. USA and other Western nations where the company operates. Thus, the success of operation in China relies on the ability of the leaders to facilitate bus iness operations in the midst of cultural diversity among the employees and distinct cultural characteristics surrounding the company such as laws, social norms and business practices. In evaluating the culture of China as part of Wal-Marts business operation, Hofstedes dimensions culture was used. Actually, Geert Hofstede is a Dutch organisational anthropologist who divided culture into four dimensions at culture level-power distance, individualism/collectivism, masculinity/femininity, and uncertainty avoidance (Dahl, 2004). It is important to be aware and comprehend these cultural dimensions for these have an influence on the internal and external workings of organizations that operate on an intercultural level. Power Distance. Power distance is described as the extent to which the less powerful members of institutions and organisations within a country expect and accept that power is distributed unequally (cited in Hofstede 1991, p. 28); more simply, it is concerned with how equal, or unequal, the people are in a specific society or nation. In China, they have high power distance i.e. 80 PDI, this means that there is significant amount of inequalities in power and wealth within China. As a result, it is quite likely that that society employs a caste system and does not permit significant development for its people (Geert Hofstede cultural dimensions 2010). In the corporate-oriented context, firms with a high power distance employ a tall organizational structure because there is greater and higher rigidity in terms of hierarchy. Also, there is a large proportion of managerial employees to the overall human resource population, high job ranking for white-collar work, large compensation differentials, and low requirements for entry-level positions (Earley, 1997, p. 147). Individualism versus Collectivism. Individualism is how a society perceives achievement and personal relationships, may it be individually or collectively. Furthermore, according to Hofstede (1991), individualism is a set of values that concern the relationship of a person to his or her collectivity in the society (as cited in Earley, 1997, p. 144). In China, the individualism was low i.e. 20 IDV which indicates that China is a nation with low individualism and has a collective nature wherein close bonds exist among the people (Geert Hofstede cultural dimensions 2010). Moreover, collectivistic people also perceive themselves in relation a societal and cultural context. This is a great challenge for Wal-Mart considering that their mother country United States has high collectivism as can be observed through the nature of their families. People who reside in such locations live in nuclear families, as oppose to highly collective Asian individuals who normally live with members of their extended families. Masculinity versus Femininity. Masculinity versus femininity refers to the gender differentiation, or more specifically, the extent of how a society applies the traditional perception of man as a model of success, control, and authority. In nations with high masculinity, men control a major part of the society and power structure, while females are restrained because of such male supremacy (Geert Hofstede cultural dimensions 2010). In China, they have high masculinity i.e. 66 MAS. Actually this is important for Wal-marts operation since it relates to achievement, industrial strife, high growth, aggression, work stress, and conflict. To be more specific, firms that are more masculine are fast-paced, aggressive, and focus more on development and growth over harmony and stability (Earley, 1997, p. 164). On the other hand, a feminine-oriented company is more concerned on the social interaction and operations among human resources. Moreover, such firm has a considerate and nurturing natur e, which means that there is more focus on interpersonal functioning and harmony over personal gain (Earley, 1997, p. 164). Hence, the employees welfare is the foremost concern, because this results to the companys ability to establish the capability of an individual to contribute to interpersonal welfare in the organization. Uncertainty Avoidance. As was defined by Hofstede, uncertainty avoidance is the extent to which the members of a culture feel threatened by uncertain or unknown situations (cited in Hofstede 1991, p. 113). As seen in the index, China has low uncertainty avoidance which indicates that the country was less rigid when it comes to change, could handle risks, and have less rules and regulations, since they could effectively endure diverse opinions (Geert Hofstede cultural dimensions 2010). For Wal-Mart, uncertainty may come from the internal and external environment. An organizations response to such ambiguities, through the use of rules, rituals, and technology, affects its image of high or low uncertainty avoidance. This could be a great challenge for Wal-Mart since China wont easily embrace the change they would bring in the country. A Fifth Cultural Dimension. After additional studies which were mainly focused on Chinese managers and workers, Hofstede introduced a fifth cultural dimension, which is the long-term orientation. This focuses on how nations apply, or do not apply, long-term devotion to conventional, forward thinking principles (Geert Hofstede cultural dimensions 2010). Countries with high levels of long-term orientation recommend a strong work ethics and anticipate long-term rewards as a consequence of todays hard work. Thus, long-term commitments are emphasized and traditions are respected (Geert Hofstede cultural dimensions 2010). This is a great challenge for Wal-Mart since they came from countries with low levels of long-term orientation that are capable to experience change because long-term customs and behaviours are lessened, and change is no longer hindered. Political The primary difference in the economies of West and China is the orientation. Most of the west countries economy is affluent while the Chinese economy adopts the economic style of Soviet Union wherein most of the economic activities are centrally planned by the government. In China, the local officials have immense authority although the economy is open to foreign investment and trade. The regulations state that Chinese firms should have at least 51 percent ownership and control of joint ventures with foreign investors (Economy of China 2010). Ramsay (2003) reports that it generally takes two to three months to register a business in China with the government putting limits on the companys business scope (p. 8). The difference in the economic orientation of China and Wal-Marts home country USA poses certain challenges to the leaders of said company. These leaders are accustomed to a free market in the USA economy wherein investors, consumers and producers transact free business and d etermine the flow of economic activities. In China, they would encounter restrictions in the various operational activities of the company such as production and marketing of certain types of products because the Chinese government pursues the interests of Chinese business organizations. Secondly, Chinas transitional economy as cited by Alon Shenker (2003) since the mid-1970s has fostered a tremendous opportunity for international firms to establish operations in the country and made international joint venture as a primary mode of foreign direct investment. However, managing joint ventures sometimes leads to cultural conflicts between Chinese managers and foreign managers. Wal-Marts leaders are more Western and their approaches to management clash with the Chinese management approach. Chinese managers rely on interventions from the extended network outside the company to manage risks and threats rather than following the budgets and plans established in advance that are expected t o guarantee success. The Chinese managers prefer particularistic and pragmatic solutions to organizational problems by analyzing causes of problems and soliciting outside intervention in problem solving while Western managers like Wal-Marts managers have the tendency to act in reference to a belief in an underlying principle that provides a ready matrix into which current reality and present existence can be fitted. As an American, Wal-Marts managers believe that future circumstances can be integrated into the ready matrix which serves as an analytic model to guide decision making processes (p. 147). Considering these differences, the Western leaders who will be assigned to China may encounter conflicting management styles with their Chinese colleagues. Thirdly, USA and China differ in religious beliefs. USA follow Christianity, especially Protestantism, and believe that good works are gifts of hardwork and Gods grace in the life of His believer and not by interventions of outside f orces (Christianity-Protestantism 2010). Chinese are more fatalistic and believe that humans must follow their destiny by living in unity with the world of nature and pursuing social conformity (Religion in China 2001). Hence, Western employees would perform their duties based on their personal judgments and decisions while their Chinese counterparts would consistently attempt to abide by the rules and seek opinions of other employees as they are more inclined to seek conformity. These differences in idea of independence would make the leaders of Wal-Mart consider the outcomes and motivations of their manpower. Western employees would be motivated to perform well if they are given sufficient freedom at work while Chinese employees may prefer to work in teams and have access to constant supervision. Fourthly, the Western value systems relative to interpersonal relationships are in conflict with those of the Chinese. Western people as cited by Alon Shenker (2003) value personal relat ionships with colleagues and supervisors but organizational hierarchy does not dictate their relationships. They equally communicate and relate to all members of the organization. Chinese employees, on the contrary, prefer a system in which coordination is hierarchical wherein the key institutional values underscore loyalty and submission to a leader whose right is to establish the goals of the group. Accordingly, the leaders of Wal-Mart who would be assigned to manage some operations of China have to practice special care in dealing with their Chinese subordinates and fellow supervisors. They may encounter Chinese colleagues who would constantly consult them before they perform their responsibilities. These leaders have to recognize that the Chinese culture places much reverence to leaders while Western people prefer to work independently most of the times. Conclusion The best way to measure success in international business is through constant monitoring by the mother company. Through monitoring, the head company can gauge expatriate failure or success, and cross-cultural competence of expatriates. Wal-Mart must be able to implement consistent monitoring measures in their operations and the performances of the employees and managers sent to China. Venture failure is oftentimes associated with lost opportunities, reduced productivity, and damaged relationships while expatriate success connotes the accomplishment of the opposite. Furthermore, cultural competence is measured if the manager assigned at a foreign location possesses a strong personal identity, has knowledge of and complies with the beliefs and values of the culture of the country where he is assigned, demonstrates sensitivity to the affective processes of the culture, communicates clearly in the language of the country of assignment, displays a degree of culturally-sanctioned behavior, nurtures active social relations with the people and authorities of the country, and negotiates the institutional structures of that culture. Basically, the leaders should be able to adapt quickly to the Chinese culture, comply with its requirements while performing their responsibilities, and gain appreciation of the unique processes of doing business in the country.

Development of Language from Rituals

Development of Language from Rituals To what extent has language evolved from complex rituals? Is ritualistic behaviour a necessary step in the development of complex language? This essay will examine the possibility of a connection between rituals and ritualistic behaviour and the development of language, with some analysis of ritual behaviour in the animal world as well as briefly examining the extent to which human use of language today is itself ritualistic. The questions above are by no means simple to answer, nor indeed is any question relating to the origin of the spoken word. How exactly language itself came about is a question which countless historians, evolutionists, biologists and linguists have tried, over many years, to answer without conclusive success. J. G. Penner, in his book Evolution Challenged by Language and Speech, in the appropriately named chapter How did language and speech originate? A confession of ignorance demonstrates this most effectively by quoting no less than 35 eminent experts, renowned in their respective fields, all essentially saying the same thing; that an understanding of exactly how language evolved is beyond human comprehension. Any attempts to explain it, it would appear, can never be much more than speculation. The evidence (that there is no evidence) is certainly compelling. In light of this, it would seem appropriate and wise to proceed with an understanding that whilst we can attempt to answer these questions, the approach, will, by necessity, be purely theoretical in essence. That said, the lack of concrete scientific evidence should not be a reason to discredit all theories completely – this essay will attempt to explore some of the more persuasive theories in investigating the link between ritualistic behaviour and the development of language. In John Haiman’s essay Perspectives on Grammaticalization, he starts by positing the concept of a ritual’s evolution into signals using the example of a basic rite performed by insects – the mating ritual of the dancing fly. Originally the male dancing fly would present the female with a smaller dead insect wrapped in silk. The purpose was for the male to use the opportunity presented by the female’s preoccupation and engagement in unwrapping the bundle to mount her, achieving his instinctual aim of copulation and impregnation. Over many years, the dead insect itself became superfluous, and now, whilst the ritual itself remains the same, the silk parcel presented to the female is empty. This, Haiman explains, has transformed the nature of the ritual inasmuch as the presenting of the empty wrapping alone has evolved into a process which serves purely as a mating signal. The above example serves to demonstrate the evolutionary complexities and potential for development in ritualistic behaviour, however, in order to postulate the origins of the spoken word it would make more sense to consider our closest primate cousins. In The Talking Ape: How Language Evolved Robbins Burling poses the question: â€Å"How did we get from an ordinary primate that could not talk to the strange human primate that can’t shut up?† (p.4)[1] Chimpanzees and Bonobos are clearly also a great deal further along the evolutionary scale than the dancing fly, but Burling provides a very similar example of the development of signal, or ‘ritualisation’, in the evolution of lip-curling in primates. As he explains, the retraction of the lip as a precursor to biting would originally have been a simple movement in order to facilitate the action of biting itself and nothing more; were the lip not to be moved, the ape would bite it. Over millions of years, the curling of the lip would have been universally recognised as a precursor to aggressive behaviour; an imminent bite. Natural selection would favour a) those clever enough to recognise this warning sign of aggression and escape without harm, and b) those who were clever enough to curl their lips and repel aggressors without needing to fight; â€Å"The sign would have then evolved from a purely instrumental act into a stereotypic communicative signal. By evolving into a communicative symbol, the retracted lip became useful for both the aggressor and his potential victim†¦ after some thousands of generations, the behaviour became almost, or fully automatic.† (Burling pp.14-15)[2] Burling explains this process of ritualisation as a logical progression of what is widely considered to be an important concept in the development of language; comprehension. It is only when the significance of a given signal is understood that it becomes a sign of communication, and thus potentially an ancestor of spoken language: â€Å"The ritualization of the lip twitch turned an instrumental act into a communicative signal, but ritualization could not even begin until the twitch was understood. Other animal signals began much as did the retracted lip. Only after meaning is discovered in instrumental gestures or vocalizations can they be ritualized into stereotypic signals.† (p.15)[3] In what we mean by ritual, then, we may perhaps use John Haimans definition; A ritual is identified as one when it ceases to be a purely instrumental act and becomes a signthe ritualized activity is regularized so that its form is relatively independent of (emancipated from) its original stimulus. (p.5)[4] Using this approach then, the question arises, and it is one that has puzzled scholars from all disciplines for thousands of years: How did these signals evolve into spoken language? If we adhere to the logic of the argument presented by Burling, based upon comprehension and ritualisation, it can be put down to the process of evolution, namely natural selection. However, as Burling argues, there is a fundamental difference between the inheritance of basic animal signals, such as those described above, and the development of the spoken word. Natural selection may well have favoured those with the ability to comprehend visible or audible signs, but spoken language could never have been passed on genetically; it would have had to be learnt by the members of each successive generation. This is one of the most vital differences between us and our simian relatives. What distinguishes us from apes, more than anything else, is the ability to communicate via spoken language, as opposed to sig nals, or ‘visible language’ (p.122)[5]. Acknowledging all the while how difficult his task is, Burling attempts to answer the question of how audio signals developed from visual ones, going on to explore various theories including the beginnings of verbal communication as a development of vocal accompaniment to music, and â€Å"motherese†, the cooing vocalisation of mothers toward their children. Burling makes a significant distinction between human language and ‘human screams, sighs, sobs, and laughter’ (p.16)[6]. Our own ‘audible cries, howls, giggles and snorts, along with our visible scowls, smiles, and stares’, he argues, are directly descended from the ‘primate calls’ of the apes, and indeed bear far more relation to the latter than to spoken language. To Burling, our own ‘primate calls’ are, being solely based on instinct and governed directly and purely by emotion, inherent and genetically passed on from generation to generation (indeed, from our simian ancestors to us). Oral Language can only be learned anew. In Language in the Light of Evolution: Volume 1, The Origins of Meaning, James Hurford explores further the difference between learned and unlearned signals, but he takes a different tack to Burling when it comes to the significance of primate communication in the origin of spoken language. Whilst agreeing with the principle of the separateness of learned and inherent communication, Hurford does not draw quite such a radical division between primate calls and spoken language. He sees language as having evolved from a mixture of what is innate and what is learned: â€Å"†¦I see enough common ground between primate calls and human utterances not to give up the idea that the evolution of human language built upon the pre-existing use of arbitrary signals by animals to do things to each other† (p.119)[7] Indeed, Hurford sees the unlearned ‘primate calls’ themselves as a direct ancestor of spoken language. He uses the analogy of the modern wonders of nanotechnology having developed only as a result of the evolution of basic Stone Age tools. There would be no computers or spacecraft had it not been for those rudimentary early tools, however primitive they may have been. Hurford goes on to point out the role of emotion in governing the variance of spoken communication; â€Å"Human language is a unique naturally occurring case of learned and arbitrary symbolic communication, about objects and events in a shared external world. Alongside modern human language, and accompanying it in utterances, we find elements of the kind of non-referring communication that we have just surveyed in animals. Some aspects of speech, such as speed, loudness and pitch range, are iconically connected with the affective mood of the speaker, and these correlations are found across all languages with little variation. You can tell when a speaker is excited, even if you can’t understand a word he is saying. These aspects of human language behaviour are largely unlearned, and come instinctively. They have been called ‘paralanguage’, implying that they do not belong to a language system proper.† (p.120)[8] Hurford quite correctly draws attention to the fact that what he describes as ‘paralanguage’ can significantly alter the nature of the communication itself without changing a single word. A vast range of intonations can radically change spoken language, and these variances in pitch, expression and emphasis, which often serve to indicate an emotion on the speaker’s behalf, have, as Hurford says, been shown to be very similar in spoken dialects all over the world, which would appear to indicate that they are indeed inherent (i.e. non-learned). It is in increasing our use and knowledge of the ‘learned’ aspect of language that we have grown apart from our primate relations and their ritualised, instinctive, signal-based communication. Burling however, in his absolute insistence on the mutual exclusivity of learned ‘primate calls’ (human and simian) and spoken language, appears in effect to have shut himself off from being able to reach a decisive conclusion about how exactly language came to evolve from the early, ritual-based, genetically inherited form of communication into the complex dialects spoken by humans today. He does little to hide the obvious difficulty he finds in making the leap from the â€Å"ordinary primate that could not talk to the strange human primate that can’t shut up†. Hurford takes a more inclusive view, and whilst acknowledging that ‘language proper’ is undeniably distinct and separate from ‘paralanguage’, he declares that ‘uniquely complex human language could not have evolved without the social ritualized doing-things-to-each-other scaffolding found in many other social species, including our nearest relatives, the primates’ (p.120)[9]. Given the limits of this essay it is only possible to explore [to a certain depth] a limited range of theory on the ritualistic origins of language, but the conclusion Hurford reaches appears to be a rational [and intelligent] one. Burling may be himself unable to convincingly bridge the gap between pant-hoots and human verbal discourse, but like Haiman, he does at least acknowledge that the roots of human language lie in ritualised behaviour. Haiman casts an intriguing perspective on the extent of ritualisation in language today. Certainly we may take Hurfords paralanguage, the contextualisation of spoken utterances dependent on variables such as pitch, intonation and volume as an example of ritualisation occurring from instinctive signal transmission. Having demonstrated, with his example of the dancing flies, an example of ritualisation resulting from repetition, Haiman expands the concept and explores the phenomenon of ritualisation occurring from what he calls grammaticalization – the transformation of the significance of verbal markers. Quoting Brophy and Partridge, he provides an example of soliders so inured to the word fuck, that its effect is practically reversed: So common indeed was [the word fuck] in its adjectival form that after a short time the ear refused to acknowledge it and took in only the noun to which it was attachedIt became so common that an effective way for the soldier to express emotion was to omit this word. Thus, if a sergeant said Get your f***ing rifles! it was understood as a matter of routine. But if he said Get your rifles! there was an immediate implication of emergency and danger. (Brophy and Partridge 1931: 16f) (p.9)[10] This look at a handful of theories relating to one of the most widely considered topics of language does, for all the various differences within, seem to point towards the fact that ritualistic behaviour was indeed an important, if not necessary step in the development of complex language as we know it today. The terms ritual and ritualisation are widely open to interpretation, but a brief glimpse at some of Haimans theories and examples of the ritualisation of modern language goes at least some way towards demonstrating the presence and significance of ritual still present in our spoken language today. Bibliography Boysson-Bardies, B (1991) â€Å"How Language Comes to Children†: MIT Press, Cambridge Burling, R (2005) â€Å"The Talking Ape†: Oxford University Press, UK Ellis, A Beattie, G (2005) â€Å"The Psychology of Language and Communication†: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Hove and London, UK Hurford, James R (2007) â€Å"Language in the Light of Evolution: Volume 1, The origins of Meaning†: Oxford University Press, UK Krebs, J.R Davies, N.B (Ed) (1984) â€Å"Behavioural Ecology: An Evolutionary Approach†: Blackwell Scientific Publications, Oxford McWhorter, J (2001) â€Å"The Power of Babe: A Natural History of Language†: William Heinemann, London Pagliuca, W (Ed) (1994) â€Å"Perspectives on Grammaticalization†: John Benjamins Publishing Company, Amsterdam Penner, J.G (2000) â€Å"Evolution challenged by language and speech†: Minerva Press, London 1 Footnotes [1] Burling, R (2005) â€Å"The Talking Ape† [2] ibid [3] Burling, R (2005) â€Å"The Talking Ape† [4] Pagliuca, W (Ed) (1994) â€Å"Perspectives on Grammaticalization† [5] Burling, R (2005) â€Å"The Talking Ape† [6] ibid [7] Hurford, James R (2007) â€Å"Language in the Light of Evolution [8] Hurford, James R (2007) â€Å"Language in the Light of Evolution [9] ibid [10] Pagliuca, W (Ed) (1994) â€Å"Perspectives on Grammaticalization†

Essay --

Kentucky v. King, 563 U.S. _____ (2011) Facts: A number of police officers set up a sting in which there were to be buy of crack cocaine outside an apartment complex in Lexington, Kentucky. Undercover Officer Gibbons watched the deal from an undercover car in a parking lot not far the from the sale area. After the deal took place, Office Gibbons radioed several other police officers. He instructed them to close in on the suspects. He advised the officers to â€Å"hurry and get there† because the suspect was making his way towards the breezeway of an apartment building. Officers arrived at the parking lot, leaving their vehicles and run to the breezeway. As soon as they enter the breezeway they hear a door shut and can detect a strong odor of marijuana. At the end of the breezeway are two apartments, one located on the left, and one located on the right. The officers were unsure of which apartment the suspect entered. Officer Gibbons advised the officers over the radio that the suspect had ran into the apartment on the right, but the officers didn’t hear this message since they were not at their vehicles. Due to the smell of marijuana coming from the apartment on the left, the officers approach that apartment. The officers banged on the door of the apartment and announced themselves. They could hear people moving inside, and it sounded like things were being moved around inside the apartment. Based on what they heard, officers assumed that drug related evidence was in the process of being destroyed. The officers then announced that they were about to enter the apartment. One of the policemen kicked the door in, and the other officers entered the apartment. Officers located three individuals inside the apartment: Hollis ... ... further held that this conduct was entirely consistent with the Fourth Amendment, and it was evident that there was no other evidence that might show that the officers either violated the Fourth Amendment or threatened to do so. The Court concluded that Officer Cobb’s statements were made after the exigency arose, therefore it cannot have created the exigency. Conclusion: The Court concluded its holding by finding that the â€Å"exigent circumstances rule† applies in certain cases where the police officer or officers do not â€Å"create the exigency,† but rather, by engaging in or threatening to engage in conduct that violates the Fourth Amendment. The Court further reasoned that because the officers in this case did not violate or threaten to violate the suspects’ Fourth Amendment rights prior to the exigency, the exigency justified the warrantless search of the apartment.

Rip Van Winkle and its Impact on Society :: Rip Van Winkle Essays

Rip Van Winkle and its Impact on Society Events, no matter how small can change a society, a culture, and an outlook in the blink of an eye. Whether it is in a war, a speech, a gesture, or even a novel. Washington Irving made an incredible impact from his short story "Rip Van Winkle", drawing the events surrounding him to form a simple story with deep meaning. To bring to a pinpoint, the story shaped the American culture as the American culture shaped the story. Washington should not be able to take full credit for his story. Rip Van Winkle originated from the Dutch folklores. The story was found in the house of Diedrich Knickerbocker. Although there was some speculation on the accuracy of the tale, historians agree that the story is "now admitted into all Historical collections as a book of unquestionable authority" (Irving, 1353). Knickerbocker claims that he actually talked to Winkle himself and concluded that Rip was in sound mind and that "the story therefore, is beyond the possibility of doubt" (1353). The Catskills are a parallel to the story. Filled with Indian folklores, the Catskills are believed to posses a Manitou or spirit that will take the form of the flesh of human or animal form that would strive to rid the area of bad or mischievous elements or people. Combing the Dutch folklore, the Indian tales, and the idea of using short simple stories to make a point, Washington created a whole new dimension of literature. The British culture concluded that his story had become the new "American" literature. Washington analysis of the relationship between the British and the colonists caused a minor stir among people. First, it was unconventional to even mention the revolution since it was such a touchy subject. Secondly, Washington made quite a statement with his notion that the British rule acted selfishly and oppressive, in turn, portrayed America as the hero. From this folklore, others have grown from it. Some believe that Rip in fact did not fall asleep, but took adventurous journeys in foreign lands with strange people. Art and child-like fantasies have been the median to which the stories have been communicated.

Economics Aeropostale Essay

In March 2007, Aà ©ropostale was accused of infringing a patent owned by Card Activation Technologies, Inc. in a lawsuit filed in the Northern District of Illinois. However, in a separate lawsuit on the same patent, Card Activation received a ruling on claim construction which it interpreted as â€Å"extremely favorable† to its interpretation of the patent and its â€Å"pursuit of infringers† of the patent. In June 2007, Aà ©ropostale was accused of infringing a patent owned by Picture Patents, LLC in a lawsuit filed in the Southern District of New York. In July 2009, Aà ©ropostale was accused of infringing a patent owned by Furnace Brook, LLC in a lawsuit filed in the Northern District of Illinois Executive Vice President and Chief Merchandising Officer Christopher Finazzo was terminated in November 2006 after an investigation by the Board of Directors revealed that he had concealed and failed to disclose personal and business interests with South Bay Apparel, a maj or vendor. The SEC issued an investigation on the Finazzo matter in January 2008. Aeropostale, also under the name Aero, is an American clothing retailer that was founded in 1987 and is headquartered in New York. There are a number of reasons Aeropostale started their own business. When you start a business it’s a good idea to have a business plan that outlines your goals and objectives for the short term and long term. A business plan serves as a blueprint designed to help you grow and develop your business, and ultimately helps shield it from failure. Kara, Postale started the company then Sara(aera) (Kara’s sister came along) that’s how the company got started. So they put there last name and first name together and it turned out to be Sarah postale but they didn’t like that name in 1985 then they changed it to aeropostale because it sounded better and that started in 1987.

Leaders and Innovation

The staff members that are having knowledge depend a lot on the leaders of the organizations.   It is important that the leader makes an attempt to innovate rather than orders his/her staff members to do so.   The leader should be able to lead his/her staff by example.   He/she should also be able to create an environment existent in the organization that is conducive for innovation. An attitude or relentless growth should be formed.   This would not only permit the organization to achieve its objectives, but also enable the staff members to do so.   Once the staff members are able to achieve their objects, they would be motivated to develop and grow father, and the best instrument to develop and grow would be innovation.   The leader of the team should ensure that there is free-flow of ideas in the team, and the communications links between the members of the team are strong and effective. The leader should also be able to develop a strategy, structures and functions within the organization that would enable innovation.   A corporate culture (which includes norms, assumptions, values and attitudes, shared by the staff that function in the organization) should be created that would help in the innovation development. Many of the leaders in the corporate sector suggest that it is utmost important for the leader to motivate his staff members using various methods, so that innovation is possible.   The leader would have to conduct research to determine the means by which the staff embers would get motivated.   He/she should then use these means to encourage the staff members to innovate further (Kotelnikov, 2007). In several branches of science, controversy follows innovation, and threatens to affect the social structures present in the organization.   Various parties may come up with their own assumptions with a new technology brought out by an organization.   This may be a subject of debate in the field.   This should be considered as an opportunity to provide answers to several difficult questions.   Several others who consider that they are experts in that field would question any new technology brought about by recent research. A strong communication link should be existent between various intellectuals of the field so that unanswered questions are effectively addressed.   This would certainly help to advance the field and provide benefits for mankind.   It is important that in any controversy situation, the roots of the conflict be recognized and addressed properly.   However, if these issues are not understood and addressed (and if not taken in the right spirit), the controversy could worsen, which would have a negative impact on the organization, the particular scientific field and ultimately on the society (Baldwin, 2007). References: Baldwin, D. V. (2007). â€Å"Innovation, Controversy, and Consensus in Traumatology†, Retrieved on November 3, 2007, from Trauma Pages Web site: http://www.trauma-pages.com/s/dvb-96a.php Kotelnikov, V. (2007). â€Å"Corporate Culture Defined,† Retrieved on November 3, 2007, from 1000 Advices Web site: http://www.1000ventures.com/business_guide/innovation_system_culture.html Kotelnikov, V. (2007). â€Å"Leading With a Growth Attitude,† Retrieved on November 3, 2007, from 1000 Advices Web site: http://www.1000ventures.com/business_guide/im_leadership.html Kotelnikov, V. (2007). â€Å"Understanding the Innovation System – Unlocking the Black Box,† Retrieved on November 3, 2007, from 1000 Advices Web site: http://www.1000ventures.com/business_guide/innovation_system.html